Consequences of traumatic stress in Rwandan genocide survivors : Epidemiology, psychotherapy, and dissemination

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Konsequenzen von traumatischem Stress bei Genozidüberlebenden in Ruanda,Epidemiologie, Psychotherapie, und Dissemination
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Zusammenfassung

Organized violence has lasting and devastating effects at the individual and community level. Previous studies in crisis regions, including Rwanda, have revealed grave consequences of violence on psychological functioning, as presented in Chapter 1. With the epidemiological study described in Chapter 2, we assessed mental health problems and needs in the post-war Rwandan society. We conducted a cross-sectional survey to examine widows and orphans, two vulnerable groups that are prominently affected during wars. In 2007, 13 years after the 1994 genocide, we trained Rwandan psychology students to conduct psycho-diagnostic interviews. Under expert supervision, they interviewed 406 genocide survivors in five districts of Butare (southern Rwanda) for socio-demographic and clinical variables. The instruments included an event-list adapted to the context of the Rwandan genocide, the validated version of the Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PDS) and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL-25), as well as the Prolonged Grief Disorder questionnaire (PG-13) and the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.) suicide section C in Kinyarwanda. We recruited orphans from age 18 to 31 and widows without age restrictions. We found that the genocide victims had experienced on average 11.3 different types of potentially traumatic events during their lifetime. Most of them related to the genocide, such as expectation to die (89.9%), forced movement (89.7%), and forced to hide to be saved (88.9%). The most common worst life events were the genocide in general, sexual violence, and witnessing murder or massacre. Mental health problems were very frequent in the sample with 34.7% suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), 7.9% Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD), 40.9% Major Depression (MD), 50% Anxiety Disorder (AD), and 38.2% suicide ideation. The vulnerability of widows was higher on average. The sum of experienced traumatic event types was the best indicator for an increased risk to suffer from clinically relevant symptoms. At the time of interview, only 5.4% of all participants received professional psychological help.
Mental health problems, in particular PTSD, are a major issue in post-conflict countries. I discuss general intervention approaches and specific psychotherapy of trauma-spectrum disorders adequate for application in post-war countries in Chapter 4. The great number of victims resulting from organized violence demands dissemination of effective short-term therapy to local human resources. I further present literature about the feasibility and effectiveness of trauma therapy dissemination for victims of organized violence. Accordingly, we performed a randomized controlled trial in Rwanda representing the second empirical study which, is described in Chapter 5. With the previously conducted cross-sectional epidemiological survey we had identified orphans and widows who had survived the 1994 genocide suffering from chronic PTSD. After a pre-test, we randomly assigned 76 genocide survivors to treatment or to a six-month waiting list (WL). In the first round of dissemination, clinical experts trained Rwandan Psychology graduates (B.A.) in Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) and Interpersonal Therapy (IPT). The Rwandan Psychologists administered NET/IPT to the patients in the treatment group under constant expert supervision (first dissemination generation). In a second round of dissemination, we conducted a randomized trial to evaluate the train the trainer model. Skilled therapists, who had participated in the first round, trained and supervised a second generation of Rwandan psychologists to offer treatment to the WL group (second dissemination generation). We conducted evaluations before therapy and at three-, six-, and twelve-month follow-up interviews using the main outcome measures for PTSD, PGD, and MD. Participants of the first dissemination generation of NET/IPT therapists reported a significant reduction in PTSD symptoms (Effect Size (ES) = 1.48). Equally, NET/IPT in second dissemination generation was effective (ES = 1.15). PGD, MD, and suicidal tendency reduced substantially over time both in the NET/IPT and the WL group. Participants maintained and increased treatment gains at follow-up interviews. The results indicate that short-term trauma therapy can be disseminated in first and second generation to Rwandan graduates. It proved to be an effective intervention, which implies general feasibility in post-conflict societies. For a broader understanding of the project context, I present an overview of Rwanda s history and culture in the Annex.

Zusammenfassung in einer weiteren Sprache

Organisierte Gewalt hat lang anhaltende und verheerende Effekte auf das Individuum und die Gesellschaft. Frühere Studien aus Krisenregionen, einschließlich Ruanda, verdeutlichten die Folgen von Gewalt auf das psychische Funktionsniveau.
In einer epidemiologischen Querschnittstudie erfassten wir psychische Probleme und Bedürfnisse ruandischer Genozid-Überlebender. Die Zielgruppen waren Witwen und Waisen zwei häufig vorkommende und vulnerable Gruppen in Konfliktgebieten und Nach-Kriegs-Gesellschaften. Dreizehn Jahre nach dem ruandischen Genozid 1994, trainierten wir lokale Psychologiestudenten in der Anwendung psychodiagnostischer Interviews. Unter Expertensupervision befragten die Studenten 406 Genozidüberlebende in fünf verschiedenen Bezirken von Butare (südliches Ruanda). Die Instrumente enthielten eine an Ruanda adaptierte Ereignisliste zur Erfassung traumatischer Erlebnisse, eine validierte Version der Posttraumatischen Stress Diagnoseskala und der Hopkins Symptom Checkliste sowie der Suizid-Sektion C des Mini Internationalen Neuropsychiatrischen Interview auf Kinyarwanda. Wir rekrutierten Waisen zwischen 18 und 31 Jahren und Witwen ohne Altersbeschränkungen.
Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die Genozidopfer im Durchschnitt 11,3 unterschiedliche Arten potentiell traumatischer Ereignisse durchlebt hatten. Die meisten Erlebnisse standen in direkter Verbindung zu dem Genozid, so wie Glaube, selber zu sterben (89,9%), Flucht vom Wohnort (89,7%), und Verstecken um zu überleben (88,9%). Die häufigste Antwort auf die Frage nach dem schlimmsten Erlebnis waren Genozid, sexuelle Gewalt, und Bezeugen eines Mordes oder Massakers. Psychische Probleme waren sehr häufig in der Stichprobe, 34,7% litten an einer Posttraumatischen Belastungsstörung (PTBS), 7,9% hatten eine Diagnose Anhaltender Trauer, 40,9% zeigten klinisch relevante Symptome einer Depression, 50% berichteten eine klinisch relevante Angstsymptomatik, und 38,2% hatten ein erhöhtes Suizidrisiko. Insgesamt waren Witwen vulnerabler für psychische Probleme. Die Summe der erlebten traumatischen Erlebnistypen war der beste Prädiktor für klinische Symptomatik. Zum Zeitpunkt des Interviews, erhielten nur 5,4% der Stichprobe psychologische Hilfe.
Psychische Störungen, insbesondere die PTBS, sind gravierende Probleme in Post-Konflikt Ländern. Die große Anzahl von Opfern organisierter Gewalt, erfordert die Dissemination effektiver therapeutischer Module an lokale Ressourcen. Entsprechend untersuchten wir nachfolgend mit der vorliegenden Studie Machbarkeit und Effektivität der Dissemination von Psychotherapie. In der zuvor durchgeführten epidemiologischen Untersuchung hatten wir Genozidüberlebende identifiziert, die unter chronischer PTBS litten. Wir evaluierten die Wirksamkeit der Therapie anhand der Symptomatik der Teilnehmer mit der Klinischen Posttraumatischen Belastungs-Skala für DSM-IV (CAPS), dem Fragebogen zu Verzögerter Trauer (PG-13), und dem Mini Internationalen Neuropsychiatrischen Interview (M.I.N.I.) zu Depression und Suizid. Die Interviews wurden vor der Therapie sowie drei-, sechs-, und 12 Monate danach durchgeführt. Nach der initialen Diagnostik wurden die Teilnehmer randomisiert der Therapiegruppe oder der Sechs-Monat Warteliste zugeteilt. In einer ersten Disseminationsgruppe trainierten klinische Experten ruandische Psychologen (B.A.) in Narrativer Expositions Therapie (NET) und Interpersoneller Therapie (IPT). Unter Expertensupervision wendeten die lokalen Psychologen eine Kombination der Therapie-Module (NET/IPT) in der Therapiegruppe an. Sechs Monate später führten wir in einer zweiten Disseminationsgruppe die Evaluation eines Multiplikatoren-Modells durch. Drei Therapeuten der ersten Disseminationsgruppe trainierten und supervidierten eine weitere Gruppe ruandischer Psychologen bei der Durchführung der NET/IPT mit den Wartelisten-Teilnehmern. Nach sechs Monaten, berichteten die Therapie-Teilnehmer der ersten NET/IPT Disseminationsgruppe eine signifikante Reduktion der PTBS Symptomatik im Vergleich zu den Teilnehmern der Warteliste (korrigierte Effektstärke ,43). Unspezifische komorbide psychische Probleme wie Anhaltende Trauer und Depression reduzierten sich signifikant in beiden Bedingungen über die Zeit. Auch nach der NET/IPT der zweiten Disseminationsgruppe berichteten die Teilnehmer einen signifikanten Rückgang psychischer Probleme vergleichbar zur ersten Gruppe. Die Symptomreduktion wurde über die Zeit beibehalten bzw. erhöhte sich bis zur 12-Monat Nachuntersuchung mit einer Effektstärke von 1,48 in der ersten und 1,15 in der zweiten Disseminationsgruppe. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Traumatherapie an ruandische Psychologen disseminiert werden kann. Es erwies sich als eine effektive Intervention, was eine generelle Machbarkeit der Dissemination von Psychotherapie in Post-Konfliktländern impliziert.

Fachgebiet (DDC)
150 Psychologie
Schlagwörter
Dissemination, Narrative Expositionstherapie, Narrative Exposure Therapy
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ISO 690JACOB, Nadja, 2010. Consequences of traumatic stress in Rwandan genocide survivors : Epidemiology, psychotherapy, and dissemination [Dissertation]. Konstanz: University of Konstanz
BibTex
@phdthesis{Jacob2010Conse-10130,
  year={2010},
  title={Consequences of traumatic stress in Rwandan genocide survivors : Epidemiology, psychotherapy, and dissemination},
  author={Jacob, Nadja},
  address={Konstanz},
  school={Universität Konstanz}
}
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    <dcterms:abstract xml:lang="eng">Organized violence has lasting and devastating effects at the individual and community level. Previous studies in crisis regions, including Rwanda, have revealed grave consequences of violence on psychological functioning, as presented in Chapter 1. With the epidemiological study described in Chapter 2, we assessed mental health problems and needs in the post-war Rwandan society. We conducted a cross-sectional survey to examine widows and orphans, two vulnerable groups that are prominently affected during wars. In 2007, 13 years after the 1994 genocide, we trained Rwandan psychology students to conduct psycho-diagnostic interviews. Under expert supervision, they interviewed 406 genocide survivors in five districts of Butare (southern Rwanda) for socio-demographic and clinical variables. The instruments included an event-list adapted to the context of the Rwandan genocide, the validated version of the Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PDS) and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL-25), as well as the Prolonged Grief Disorder questionnaire (PG-13) and the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.) suicide section C in Kinyarwanda. We recruited orphans from age 18 to 31 and widows without age restrictions. We found that the genocide victims had experienced on average 11.3 different types of potentially traumatic events during their lifetime. Most of them related to the genocide, such as expectation to die (89.9%), forced movement (89.7%), and forced to hide to be saved (88.9%). The most common worst life events were the genocide in general, sexual violence, and witnessing murder or massacre. Mental health problems were very frequent in the sample with 34.7% suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), 7.9% Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD), 40.9% Major Depression (MD), 50% Anxiety Disorder (AD), and 38.2% suicide ideation. The vulnerability of widows was higher on average. The sum of experienced traumatic event types was the best indicator for an increased risk to suffer from clinically relevant symptoms. At the time of interview, only 5.4% of all participants received professional psychological help.&lt;br /&gt;Mental health problems, in particular PTSD, are a major issue in post-conflict countries. I discuss general intervention approaches and specific psychotherapy of trauma-spectrum disorders adequate for application in post-war countries in Chapter 4. The great number of victims resulting from organized violence demands dissemination of effective short-term therapy to local human resources. I further present literature about the feasibility and effectiveness of trauma therapy dissemination for victims of organized violence. Accordingly, we performed a randomized controlled trial in Rwanda representing the second empirical study which, is described in Chapter 5. With the previously conducted cross-sectional epidemiological survey we had identified orphans and widows who had survived the 1994 genocide suffering from chronic PTSD. After a pre-test, we randomly assigned 76 genocide survivors to treatment or to a six-month waiting list (WL). In the first round of dissemination, clinical experts trained Rwandan Psychology graduates (B.A.) in Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) and Interpersonal Therapy (IPT). The Rwandan Psychologists administered NET/IPT to the patients in the treatment group under constant expert supervision (first dissemination generation). In a second round of dissemination, we conducted a randomized trial to evaluate the train the trainer model. Skilled therapists, who had participated in the first round, trained and supervised a second generation of Rwandan psychologists to offer treatment to the WL group (second dissemination generation). We conducted evaluations before therapy and at three-, six-, and twelve-month follow-up interviews using the main outcome measures for PTSD, PGD, and MD. Participants of the first dissemination generation of NET/IPT therapists reported a significant reduction in PTSD symptoms (Effect Size (ES) = 1.48). Equally, NET/IPT in second dissemination generation was effective (ES = 1.15). PGD, MD, and suicidal tendency reduced substantially over time both in the NET/IPT and the WL group. Participants maintained and increased treatment gains at follow-up interviews. The results indicate that short-term trauma therapy can be disseminated in first and second generation to Rwandan graduates. It proved to be an effective intervention, which implies general feasibility in post-conflict societies. For a broader understanding of the project context, I present an overview of Rwanda s history and culture in the Annex.</dcterms:abstract>
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