From diapause to sexual reproduction : evolutionary ecology of the Daphnia Hybrid Complex from Lake Constance

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Von Diapause zur sexuellen Reproduktion: Evolutionsökologie des Daphnia-Hybridkomplexes vom Bodensee
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This thesis deals with the interplay between sexual reproduction, hybridization and diapause and their ecological and evolutionary consequences for large lake Daphnia populations. Although the Daphnia population of Lake Constance was intensively investigated during the last century this thesis showed the first time a detailed analysis of temporal species specific differences in allocation to sexual reproduction and the importance of diapause. The results presented showed that the inclusion of these important life-history components is not only essential for the understanding for temporary pond, but also for permanent lake Daphnia populations. Therefore, this study cover the whole life-cycle of daphnids. This thesis starts with the parthenogenetic phase, continues with sexual reproduction and diapause and ends with the recruitment of new parthenogenetical females. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance, sexual reproduction and genetic architecture in a Daphnia hyalina-galeata hybrid complex were studied in the large and deep Lake Constance (chapter 2). We found evidence for the occurrence of first and second order hybridization. The study revealed strong differences between the parental species regarding not only their seasonal dynamics, genetic architecture and diversity, but also their sexual reproductive behaviour. The overwintering D. hyalina showed low genetic diversity, no genetic differentiation during the season, and reproduced sexually in autumn, whereas D. galeata reached higher levels of genetic diversity, reproduced sexually in early summer, and exhibited changes in genetic structure during the season, but was only present from spring to autumn. Within all variables studied, F1 and F2 hybrids showed an intermediate pattern, whereas proposed backcross hybrids were more similar to their respective parentals. These differences in phenotype as well as significant differences in pairwise Fst values between parentals suggest that gene flow seems to be relative low in the Lake Constance hybrid system. The study presents evidence for unidirectional introgression by backcrossing from D. galeata to D. hyalina and found a decrease in at least one of the proposed introgressed alleles in the hyalina-backcross with ongoing season. The findings suggest allochronic differentiation within this hybrid population and different microevolutionary trajectories of the parental species, which will be discussed in light of the ongoing reoligotrophication process of Lake Constance. Seasonal dynamics in allocation to and timing of sexual reproduction were studied over three years in a Daphnia hyalina-galeata hybrid population of large and deep Lake Constance (chapter 3). These results were compared to a multispecies mesocosm experiment carried out under natural conditions. In all three years we observed two distinct periods of sexual activity. In early summer, no D. hyalina sexual females were found and 90 % of the sexual females and males were D. galeata. In autumn, however, no D. galeata sexual females were found and more than 60 % of the sexual females and males were D. hyalina. The D. hyalina-galeata hybrid were sexual during both periods. Despite these seasonal differences all three taxa produced ephippia and males during an enclosure experiment conducted in July 2001, i.e., a time when no sexual activity was observed in the lake. The parentals showed in the lake as well as in the enclosures similar allocation to sexual females and males. In contrast, the hybrid showed a much higher allocation to sexual females during the enclosure experiment. In the field, D. galeata contributed the most to ephippia production. D. hyalina ephippia production was relative sparse, and the hybrid showed, at least in the lake population, an intermediate allocation. Our findings indicate a species x environment interaction for the induction of and allocation to sexual activity. This will be discussed in the light of different overwintering strategies and their consequences for the maintenance of genetic variation within populations. Chapter 4 deals with the egg-bank of the Daphnia population. Resting eggs of planktonic organisms from datable sediment cores are increasingly used to reconstruct historical information on the abundance, size, genetic composition and microevolution of planktonic organisms. All these studies rely on the up to now mostly untested assumption that the resting egg bank in the sediment will indeed allow an accurate reconstruction of past populations. Here the study tests the performance of the egg bank to reconstruct historical data of the Daphnia population of Lake Constance, which has been thoroughly investigated throughout the last century. The study shows that it is possible to reproduce variability in abundance, size, and genetic composition of Daphnia galeata within a period of approximately two decades. Furthermore, resting egg data allowed to reconstruct the timing of the invasion of Daphnia galeata into Lake Constance. However, the egg bank> failed to reconstruct a) the dynamics of the native Daphnia species of Lake Constance, D. hyalina, and b) the relative importance of the two Daphnia species. The study present evidence that the latter is because the two species differ in the relative importance and timing of sexual reproductive activity and in the buoyancy of ephippia. The failure to reconstruct the long-term dynamics of D. hyalina in the lake is most probably due to a change in sexual activity and possibly also of ephippia buoyancy in the course of eutrophication. Chapter 5 deals with species specific differences in recruitment. The recruitment from resting-stages is a common feature of many planktic organisms in temporary ponds as well as in large lakes. Since the cues for breaking diapause, i.e., increases in temperature and light intensity, decrease with lake depth, we hypothesized that the littoral zone plays an important role in the recruitment of zooplankton in large lake populations. We investigated the recruitment of Daphnia hyalinagaleata in the large lake, Lake Constance. In laboratory, we examined emergence under 6 different temperature regimes, 5 different light intensity regimes and 6 different day-length regimes and compared these results with a 2-year survey of in-situ emergence patterns using emergence traps placed at varying depths. Additionally, we investigated the temporal and spatial ephippia distribution in Lake Constance using 114 core samples taken regularly from January and December and from depths of 1m to 220 m. The results from both our laboratory aand the in-situ emergence experiments indicate that emergence begins when temperatures exceed storage temperature (in Lake Constance this is between 4°C to 5°C), was restricted to a short period in February/March and was higher in deeper traps. Neither light intensity nor day-length had a significant effect on total emergence or on timing of emergence in the lab. In situ, we found no D. hyalina hatching from profundal sediments, but D. hyalina made up to 25% of littoral hatchlings. Ephippia densities increased with depth. In littoral sediments, ephippia were only found in the time period between ephippia production in early summer and late autumn. From these findings we conclude that the littoral might be more important for the recruitment of D. hyalina, however, the main recruitment of D. galeata seems to take place in rather deeper strata. The presented studies revealed evidence not only for the importance of sexual activity for species specific differences in the seasonal pattern and seasonal genetic architecture, but also for species specific differences in the deposition of and emergence from resting stages. Furthermore, the results revealed evidence that sexual activity might not be constant, but changed over time, possibly influenced by eutrophication and competition. The received picture highlights the importance of sexual reproduction, diapause and hybridization and the linkage of the seasonal pattern and long-term development for the understanding of the processes within large lake Daphnia populations.

Zusammenfassung in einer weiteren Sprache

In dieser Arbeit wird das Wechselspiel zwischen sexueller Reproduktion, Hybridisierung und Diapause und die daraus folgenden ökologischen und evolutiven Konsequenzen für die Daphnia-Populationen von großen Seen behandelt. Obwohl die Daphnia-Population des Bodensees im letzten Jahrhundert intensiv untersucht wurde, zeigt diese Arbeit erstmals eine detaillierte Analyse der zeitlichen artspezifischen Unterschiede in die Allokation in sexueller Reproduktion und die Bedeutung der Diapause. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Berücksichtigung dieser life-history Komponenten nicht nur für das Verstehen von Populationen aus temporären Gewässern wichtig ist, sondern auch für Daphnien Populationen von permanenten Seen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde deshalb der gesamte Lebenszyklus von Daphnien, beginnend mit der parthenogenetischen Phase, gefolgt von sexueller Reproduktion und Diapause und bis hin zur Rekrutierung neuer parthenogenetischer Weibchen untersucht. Die saisonale Dynamik der Abundanz, der sexuellen Reproduktion und der genetischen Architektur des Daphnia hyalina-galeata Hybridkomplexes wurde im Bodensee untersucht (Kapitel 2). Die Ergebnisse deuten daraufhin, dass Hybridisierung des ersten und zweiten Grades vorkommen kann. Es zeigten sich große artspezifische Unterschiede nicht nur in der saisonalen Dynamik, der genetischen Architektur und Diversität, sondern auch im sexuelle Verhalten. Die überwinternde D. hyalina Population zeigte eine geringe Diversität, keine saisonale genetische Differenzierung und sexuelle Reproduktion im Herbst, wohingegen D. galeata große genetische Diversität erreichte, sexuell im Frühsommer reproduziert, beträchtliche Veränderungen in der saisonalen genetischen Struktur aufwies, aber nur vom Frühjahr bis zum Herbst vorkam. In allen Variablen die untersucht wurden zeigten die F1 und F2 Hybride ein intermediäres Muster, wohingegen die Rückkreuzungshybride ihren Elternarten ähnlicher waren. Diese phänotypischen Unterschiede zusammen mit den signifikanten Unterschieden in den paarweisen Fst-Werten zwischen den Elternarten, deuten darauf hin, dass in dem Bodensee- Hybridkomplex Genfluss relativ gering ist. Es ergaben sich Hinweise für einseitige Introgression via Rückkreuzung von D. galeata zu D. hyalina und zeigt über die Saison eine Abnahme für mindestens eines dieser angenommenen introgressierten Allele in der hyalina- Rückkreuzungspopulation. Die Ergebnisse deuten auf eine allochronische Differenzierung innerhalb des Hybridkomplexes und unterschiedliche mikroevolutive Bahnen der Elternarten hin, welche im Hinblick auf die weitergehende Reoligotrophierung des Bodensees diskutiert werden. Über einen Zeitraum von drei Jahren wurde die saisonale Dynamik der Allokation in und das zeitliche Auftreten von sexueller Reproduktion innerhalb des Daphnia hyalina- galeata Hybridkomplexes des Bodensees untersucht (Kapitel 3). Diese Ergebnisse wurden verglichen mit einem unter natürlichen Bedingungen durchgeführten Mehrarten- Mesokosmosexperiment. In allen drei Jahren waren zwei distinkte Perioden der sexuellen Reproduktion zu beobachten. Im Frühsommer wurden kein sexuelles Weibchen von D. hyalina gefunden, während 90 % der sexuellen Weibchen und Männchen D. galeata waren. Im Herbst dagegen, wurde kein sexuelles Weibchen von D. galeata gefunden und mehr als 60 % der sexuellen Weibchen und Männchen gehörten zu D. hyalina. Der Hybrid war in beiden Zeiträumen sexuell aktiv. Trotz dieser saisonalen Unterschiede, reproduzierten sich in dem Mesokosmusexperiment alle drei Taxa sexuell, welches im Juli 2001 durchgeführt wurde, d.h. in einem Zeitraum, in dem keine sexuelle Aktivität im See beobachtet wurde. Die Elternarten zeigten sowohl im See als auch in den Mesokosmen eine ähnliche Allokation in sexuelle Weibchen und Männchen. Im Gegensatz dazu, zeigten die Hybride eine viel stärkere Allokation in sexuelle Weibchen in den Mesokosmen. Über alle drei Jahre trug die D. galeata Population den meisten Teil zu den produzierten Ephippien bei. Die Ephippienproduktion von D. hyalina war sehr gering und der Hybrid zeigte, zumindest in der Seepopulation, eine intermediäre Muster. Die Ergebnisse deuten auf eine Art x Umwelt- Interaktion für die Induktion von und Allokation in sexuelle(r) Aktivität. Diese Ergebnisse werden im Hinblick auf unterschiedliche Überwinterungsstrategien und deren Konsequenzen für den Erhalt der genetischen Variation innerhalb von Populationen diskutiert. Kapitel 4 handelt von der Dauerstadienbank der Daphnia Population. Dauerstadien von planktischen Organismen aus datierbaren Sedimentkernen werden zunehmend zur Rekonstruktion historischer Informationen, wie Abundanz, Größe, genetische Zusammensetzung und Mikroevolution von planktischen Organismen, genutzt. Alle diese Studien vertrauen auf der bis heute weitgehend nicht getesteten Annahme, dass die Dauerstadien in den Sedimenten eine Rekonstruktion der vergangenen Population erlauben. Diese Studie testet die Leistung von Dauerstadienbanken für die Rekonstruktion historischer Daten anhand der Daphnia Population des Bodensees, welche im letzten Jahrhundert gründlich untersucht wurde. Die Arbeit zeigt, dass es möglich ist die Variabilität in der Abundanz, der Größe und der genetischen Zusammensetzung von D. galeata über einen Zeitraum der letzten zwei Jahrzehnte zu rekonstruieren. Darüber hinaus erlauben die Daten den Zeitpunkt der Einwanderung von D. galeata in den Bodensee zu rekonstruieren. Dagegen war die Rekonstruktion nicht möglich von a) der Dynamik der heimischen D. hyalina und b) der relativen Zusammensetzung dieser beiden Arten. Das Ausbleiben in der Rekonstruierbarkeit der Langzeitentwicklung der D. hyalina Population im Bodensee ist wahrscheinlich aufgrund einer Veränderung in der sexuellen Aktivität und vermutlich in der Schwimmfähigkeit der Ephippien im Zuge der Eutrophierung begründet. In Kapitel 5 werden artspezifische Unterschiede in der Rekrutierung aus Dauerstadien behandelt. Die Rekrutierung aus Dauerstadien ist eine häufige Eigenschaft von vielen planktischen Organismen in temporären Gewässern, aber auch in großen permanenten Seen. Da die Signale, die die Diapause beenden, d.h. anstieg der Temperatur und Lichtintensität, mit zunehmender Wassertiefe abnehmen, scheint das Litoral eine besondere Bedeutung für die Rekrutierung des Zooplanktons von großen und tiefen Seen zu haben. In dieser Arbeit wurde die Rekrutierung der Daphnia hyalina-galeata Population des Bodensees untersucht. In Laborversuchen wurde die Emergenz unter 6 verschiedenen Temperaturregimen, 5 verschiedenen Lichtintensitäten und 6 verschiedenen Tageslängen untersucht und mit einer 2-jährigen Studie zum in-situ Emergenzmuster verglichen, die mit Hilfe von Emergenzfallen durchgeführt wurde, die in unterschiedlichen Tiefen exponiert waren. Darüber hinaus wurde die zeitliche und räumliche Verteilung der Ephippien im Bodensee anhand von 114 Sedimentkernen untersucht, die regelmäßig von Januar bis Dezember in Tiefen von 1 m bis 220 m genommen wurden. Die Ergebnisse der Laborversuche und der in-situ Emergenzfallen zeigen, dass die Emergenz beginnt, wenn die Temperaturen die Lagerungstemperaturen (im Bodensee zwischen 4°C und 5°C) überschreiten. Sie ist auf eine kurze Periode im Februar/März beschränkt und war in den tiefer gelegenen Fallen höher. Weder Lichtintensität noch veränderter Tag/Nacht-Rhythmus beeinflussten die absolute Anzahl oder den Zeitpunkt der Emergenz im Labor. Es wurde keine D. hyalina gefunden, die aus profundalen Sedimenten geschlüpft ist, D. hyalina machte aber 25 % der geschlüpften Tiere aus dem Litoral aus. Die Ephippiendichten nahmen mit der Tiefe zu. Im Litoral wurden Ephippien nur in der Zeit von der Ephippienproduktion im Frühsommer bis in den Herbst gefunden. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Litoral eine höhere Bedeutung für die Rekrutierung von D. hyalina hat, dagegen erfolgt die Hauptrekrutierung von D. galeata aus tieferen Bereichen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde nicht nur die Bedeutung der sexuellen Aktivität für artspezifische Unterschiede im saisonalen Muster und der saisonalen genetischen Architektur, sondern auch für die artspezifischen Unterschiede in der Lagerung von Dauerstadien und Emergenz aus diesen untersucht. Darüber hinaus, deuten die Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass sexuelle Aktivität nicht konstant ist, sondern sich über die Zeit ändert, möglicherweise beeinflusst durch die Eutrophierung und Konkurrenz. Dabei wird die besondere Stellung von sexueller Reproduktion, Hybridisierung und Diapause und die Verknüpfung von saisonalem Muster und Langzeitentwicklung für das Verständnis der Prozesse innerhalb von Daphnia-Populationen hervorgehoben.

Fachgebiet (DDC)
570 Biowissenschaften, Biologie
Schlagwörter
Populationsgenetik, Dauerstadienbank, Reoligotrophierung, Langzeitentwicklung, Evolutionsökologie, population genetics, resting-egg bank, reoligotrophication, long-term development, evolutionary ecology
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ISO 690JANKOWSKI, Thomas, 2002. From diapause to sexual reproduction : evolutionary ecology of the Daphnia Hybrid Complex from Lake Constance [Dissertation]. Konstanz: University of Konstanz
BibTex
@phdthesis{Jankowski2002diapa-7571,
  year={2002},
  title={From diapause to sexual reproduction : evolutionary ecology of the Daphnia Hybrid Complex from Lake Constance},
  author={Jankowski, Thomas},
  address={Konstanz},
  school={Universität Konstanz}
}
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    <dcterms:abstract xml:lang="eng">This thesis deals with the interplay between sexual reproduction, hybridization and diapause and their ecological and evolutionary consequences for large lake Daphnia populations. Although the Daphnia population of Lake Constance was intensively investigated during the last century this thesis showed the first time a detailed analysis of temporal species specific differences in allocation to sexual reproduction and the importance of diapause. The results presented showed that the inclusion of these important life-history components is not only essential for the understanding for temporary pond, but also for permanent lake Daphnia populations. Therefore, this study cover the whole life-cycle of daphnids. This thesis starts with the parthenogenetic phase, continues with sexual reproduction and diapause and ends with the recruitment of new parthenogenetical females. Seasonal dynamics of the abundance, sexual reproduction and genetic architecture in a Daphnia hyalina-galeata hybrid complex were studied in the large and deep Lake Constance (chapter 2). We found evidence for the occurrence of first and second order hybridization. The study revealed strong differences between the parental species regarding not only their seasonal dynamics, genetic architecture and diversity, but also their sexual reproductive behaviour. The overwintering D. hyalina showed low genetic diversity, no genetic differentiation during the season, and reproduced sexually in autumn, whereas D. galeata reached higher levels of genetic diversity, reproduced sexually in early summer, and exhibited changes in genetic structure during the season, but was only present from spring to autumn. Within all variables studied, F1 and F2 hybrids showed an intermediate pattern, whereas proposed backcross hybrids were more similar to their respective parentals. These differences in phenotype as well as significant differences in pairwise Fst values between parentals suggest that gene flow seems to be relative low in the Lake Constance hybrid system. The study presents evidence for unidirectional introgression by backcrossing from D. galeata to D. hyalina and found a decrease in at least one of the proposed introgressed alleles in the hyalina-backcross with ongoing season. The findings suggest allochronic differentiation within this hybrid population and different microevolutionary trajectories of the parental species, which will be discussed in light of the ongoing reoligotrophication process of Lake Constance. Seasonal dynamics in allocation to and timing of sexual reproduction were studied over three years in a Daphnia hyalina-galeata hybrid population of large and deep Lake Constance (chapter 3). These results were compared to a multispecies mesocosm experiment carried out under natural conditions. In all three years we observed two distinct periods of sexual activity. In early summer, no D. hyalina sexual females were found and 90 % of the sexual females and males were D. galeata. In autumn, however, no D. galeata sexual females were found and more than 60 % of the sexual females and males were D. hyalina. The D. hyalina-galeata hybrid were sexual during both periods. Despite these seasonal differences all three taxa produced ephippia and males during an enclosure experiment conducted in July 2001, i.e., a time when no sexual activity was observed in the lake. The parentals showed in the lake as well as in the enclosures similar allocation to sexual females and males. In contrast, the hybrid showed a much higher allocation to sexual females during the enclosure experiment. In the field, D. galeata contributed the most to ephippia production. D. hyalina ephippia production was relative sparse, and the hybrid showed, at least in the lake population, an intermediate allocation. Our findings indicate a species x environment interaction for the induction of and allocation to sexual activity. This will be discussed in the light of different overwintering strategies and their consequences for the maintenance of genetic variation within populations. Chapter 4 deals with the egg-bank of the Daphnia population. Resting eggs of planktonic organisms from datable sediment cores are increasingly used to reconstruct historical information on the abundance, size, genetic composition and microevolution of planktonic organisms. All these studies rely on the up to now mostly untested assumption that the resting egg bank in the sediment will indeed allow an accurate reconstruction of past populations. Here the study tests the performance of the egg bank to reconstruct historical data of the Daphnia population of Lake Constance, which has been thoroughly investigated throughout the last century. The study shows that it is possible to reproduce variability in abundance, size, and genetic composition of Daphnia galeata within a period of approximately two decades. Furthermore, resting egg data allowed to reconstruct the timing of the invasion of Daphnia galeata into Lake Constance. However, the egg bank&gt; failed to reconstruct a) the dynamics of the native Daphnia species of Lake Constance, D. hyalina, and b) the relative importance of the two Daphnia species. The study present evidence that the latter is because the two species differ in the relative importance and timing of sexual reproductive activity and in the buoyancy of ephippia. The failure to reconstruct the long-term dynamics of D. hyalina in the lake is most probably due to a change in sexual activity and possibly also of ephippia buoyancy in the course of eutrophication. Chapter 5 deals with species specific differences in recruitment. The recruitment from resting-stages is a common feature of many planktic organisms in temporary ponds as well as in large lakes. Since the cues for breaking diapause, i.e., increases in temperature and light intensity, decrease with lake depth, we hypothesized that the littoral zone plays an important role in the recruitment of zooplankton in large lake populations. We investigated the recruitment of Daphnia hyalinagaleata in the large lake, Lake Constance. In laboratory, we examined emergence under 6 different temperature regimes, 5 different light intensity regimes and 6 different day-length regimes and compared these results with a 2-year survey of in-situ emergence patterns using emergence traps placed at varying depths. Additionally, we investigated the temporal and spatial ephippia distribution in Lake Constance using 114 core samples taken regularly from January and December and from depths of 1m to 220 m. The results from both our laboratory aand the in-situ emergence experiments indicate that emergence begins when temperatures exceed storage temperature (in Lake Constance this is between 4°C to 5°C), was restricted to a short period in February/March and was higher in deeper traps. Neither light intensity nor day-length had a significant effect on total emergence or on timing of emergence in the lab. In situ, we found no D. hyalina hatching from profundal sediments, but D. hyalina made up to 25% of littoral hatchlings. Ephippia densities increased with depth. In littoral sediments, ephippia were only found in the time period between ephippia production in early summer and late autumn. From these findings we conclude that the littoral might be more important for the recruitment of D. hyalina, however, the main recruitment of D. galeata seems to take place in rather deeper strata. The presented studies revealed evidence not only for the importance of sexual activity for species specific differences in the seasonal pattern and seasonal genetic architecture, but also for species specific differences in the deposition of and emergence from resting stages. Furthermore, the results revealed evidence that sexual activity might not be constant, but changed over time, possibly influenced by eutrophication and competition. The received picture highlights the importance of sexual reproduction, diapause and hybridization and the linkage of the seasonal pattern and long-term development for the understanding of the processes within large lake Daphnia populations.</dcterms:abstract>
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