The use of the stimulant khat, war-related trauma and psychosis in Somalia : how changed use patterns of a traditional drug are related to psychiatric problems in a country in the transition from war to peace

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The production and consumption of khat leaves, a traditional stimulant drug originating from the countries around the Horn of Africa and the Arab Peninsula, has been growing enormously during the last century, especially fast after 1970. Since then, modern means of transport were available for the distribution of the perishable good to markets outside the regions of its production. Today, khat is an important cash crop and economic factor for several national economies. Millions of people economically depend on khat. At the same time, the understanding of newly developed consumption patterns, distinct from the former traditional use, and their health consequences are neither well studied nor understood.
In Chapter 2, the currently available literature concerning the association between khat use and psychosis is reviewed and critically discussed. Most studies had severe methodological shortcomings and did not address important research questions, e.g. the direction of relationship. There is sufficient evidence to say that excessive khat use can induce short-lived psychotic states, which remit normally within two weeks upon cessation. Whether khat use is in any way related to schizophrenia spectrum disorders, e.g. by exacerbating symptoms, triggering single episodes or increasing the vulnerability, has not been topic of any scientific study.
In Chapter 3, a study is presented targeting this very issue. In a cross-sectional household survey in Hargeisa, the capital of Somaliland (North-Western Somalia) we identified 169 cases with long-lasting functioning impairment due to mental disorders among our sample of 4.854 subjects. The prevalence of this condition was highest among the former combatants (5% of the total sample), with about 16%, compared to civilian war survivors (8%) and others without any war experiences (3%). We randomly selected 54 of these cases, assessed their mental health using a structured clinical interview and compared them to healthy matched controls. Our results show that 83% (43) of these cases suffered from a long-lasting psychotic disorder of the schizophrenia spectrum. The rest of them was diagnosed with stroke, traumatic brain injury, dementia and mental retardation. In a following case-control study with the 43 psychotic patients we found that their khat use at the time of psychosis onset was significantly higher than the consumption of the matched controls at the same age. Excessive khat use preceded the onset of the disorder in 78% of the psychotic cases in comparison to 4% at the same age among the controls. Additionally, psychotic patients had started to use khat four years earlier in their lives as the healthy controls, on mean at the age of 17. Based on these results we concluded that early onset and excessive use of khat might be risk factors for the development of psychotic disorders of the schizophrenia spectrum.
In Chapter 4, a case study of one patient with a long-lasting psychotic disorder and a comorbid khat abuse is presented. His symptoms worsened while he, in parallel, increased his khat intake; in the course of deterioration of paranoid delusions he finally committed a murder and was imprisoned. This case probably illustrates the most neglected side of the psychiatric problems related to khat: this is not the striking picture of a khat-induced psychosis but the effect of khat chewing on pre-existing disorders. This case study also provides insight into the local juridical practice: he was treated as a normal prisoner as if there was no psychiatric condition involved.
In Chapter 5, a study is reported, which aimed at the development of a reliable and valid psycho-diagnostic instrument to assess Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Somali language and which can be applied by trained, local interviewers. A Somali version of the Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (Foa, 1995) was developed. It showed good reliability and validity in a sample of 135 randomly chosen ex-combatants. We found that ex-combatants with PTSD reported a longer average duration of khat sessions in the previous week. They also exhibited more frequently productive psychotic symptoms. Important in this context, we confirmed our previous hypothesis that attempts to self-medicate posttraumatic symptoms promote khat use and might in this way - contribute to the development of khat-induced psychotic symptoms.
The previously reported work served as preparatory study for a large epidemiological assessment of more than 8.000 active and former combatants, as described in Chapter 6. This study was conducted in the context of a preparatory project for an international disarmament, demobilization and reintegration program. Drug use patterns markedly differed between northern and southern Somalia: the one-week prevalence as well as the amount of khat use and the estimated use of five other drugs (hashish, psychoactive tablets, alcohol, solvents and hemp seeds) were clearly higher in southern Somalia. This study illustrates that the reintegration of former combatants will be a challenge, as a large number of participants will have drug-related problems.
In Chapter 7, a model for the assumed relationship between khat use and schizophrenia spectrum disorders is presented. Central in this model are three consecutive processes: the early onset in life, the increase of khat consumption and the development of acquired vulnerability to schizophrenia through multiple khat-induced psychotic states. Schizophrenia as such can be triggered through continuous khat use after this stage has been reached.

Zusammenfassung in einer weiteren Sprache

Im Laufe des vergangenen Jahrhunderts gab es einen enormen Anstieg der Produktion und des Konsums von Khatblättern, einem traditionallen Rauschmittel, das hauptsächlich in den Ländern um das Horn von Afrika und der Arabischen Halbinsel bekannt ist. Diese Veränderungen fanden insbesondere nach 1970 statt, nachdem zunehmend moderne Transportmittel eingesetzt wurden, um internationale Märkte mit dem leicht verderblichen Produkt zu beliefern. Für einige Volkswirtschaften ist Khat heute ein wichtiger Devisenbringer und Wirtschaftsfaktor, und Millionen Menschen sind ökonomisch davon abhängig. Die im Zuge dieser Entwicklung entstandenen Konsummuster, die sich stark von traditionellem Konsum unterscheiden, als auch deren Gesundheitsfolgen sind schlecht untersucht und noch nicht verstanden.
In Kapitel 2 wird die gegenwärtig verfügbare Literatur, die sich mit dem Zusammenhang zwischen Khat und psychotischen Störungen befasst, dargestellt und kritisch diskutiert. Die meisten Studien sind mit methodischen Problemen behaftet und bearbeiteten die wichtigsten Forschungsfragen nicht. Beispielsweise blieb die Richtung des Zusammenhangs zwischen Khatkonsum und psychischen Störungen unklar. Exzessiver Khatkonsum kann kurzdauernde psychotische Störungen auslösen, die bei Abstinenz innerhalb von zwei Wochen remittieren. Inwieweit Khatkonsum und Störungen aus dem Schizophreniespektrum interagieren wurde bislang nicht untersucht, z.B. ob es zu Symptomverschlechterung, Auslösung einzelener Episoden oder der Erhöhung von Vulnerabilitäten kommen kann.
In Kapitel 3 wird eine Studie beschrieben, die genau das zum Ziel hatte. In einer repräsentativen Stichprobe von 4.854 Personen in Hargeisa, der Hauptstadt Somalilands (Nordwest Somalia), konnten 169 Fälle mit langdauernden Funktionsproblemen aufgrund psychischer Störungen identifiziert werden. Die Prävalenz dieser Funktionsprobleme war mit 16% am höchsten unter ehemaligen Kombattanten (5% der Gesamtstichprobe) im Vergleich zu zivilen Bürgerkriegsüberlebenden (8%) und Personen ohne jegliche Kriegserfahrung (3%). Aus allen Fällen wurden 54 zufällig ausgewählt und einem zweiten, klinischen Interview zur Diagnose ihrer psychischen Störungen unterzogen. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass 83% (43) von ihnen eine langdauernde psychotische Störung aus dem Schizophreniespektrum aufwies. Eine sich anschließende Fall-Kontrollstudie mit diesen 43 Patienten zeigte, dass deren Khatkonsum zur Zeit des Störungsausbruchs signifikant erhöht war. In 78% der Fälle ging exzessiver Khatgebrauch dem Beginn der Psychose voraus. Im Vergleich dazu hatten 4% der Kontrollpersonen im gleichen Alter exzessiv Khat konsumierten. Außerdem hatten psychotische Patienten den Khatkonsum im Durchschnitt vier Jahre früher begonnen, im Alter von 17. Ein früher Beginn des Khatkonsums und der exzessive Gebrauch könnten daher Risikofaktoren für Störungen aus dem Schizophreniespektrum sein.
In Kapitel 4 wird der Fall eines Patienten mit einer langandauernden psychotischen Störung und komorbidem Khatkonsum berichtet. Während er seinen Khatkonsum erhöhte, wurde er zusehends paranoider und beging schließlich einen Mord. Dieser Fall zeigt eine vernachlässigte Seite der Khatproblematik: die Auswirkung des Khatkonsums auf vorbestehende psychiatrische Störungen. Dieser Fall erlaubt außerdem einen Einblick in die lokale Praxis der Rechtsprechung und des Strafvollzugs: Der Patient wurde im gesamten Verfahren und während der Haft so behandelt als sei keine psychiatrische Störung vorhanden.
In Kapitel 5 wurde die Entwicklung eines reliablen und validen psycho-diagnostischen Instruments für die Erhebung der Posttraumatischen Belastungsstörung (PTSD) in somalischer Sprache vorgestellt, das speziell von trainierten lokalen Interviewern angewendet werden kann: die somalische Version der Posttrautmatic Diagnostic Scale (Foa, 1995). An einer Zufallsstichprobe von 135 ehemaligen Kombattanten wurde dieses Instrument gestestet und erreichte dabei gute Realibilitäts- und Validitätskennwerte. Außerdem zeigte ich in dieser Studie, dass Ex-Kombatanten mit PTSD in der vorangegangenen Woche länger Khat konsumiert hatten. Sie waren außerdem häufiger von produktiv-psychotischen Symptomen betroffen. Selbstmedikationsversuche von posttraumatischen Symptomen mit Khat können möglicherweise zur Entwicklung von khat-induzierten psychotischen Symptomen beitragen.
Die in Kapitel 5 berichtete Studie diente zur Vorbereitung einer großen epidemiologischen Erhebung von mehr als 8.000 aktiven und ehemaligen Kombatanten in ganz Somalia, die in Kapitel 6 beschrieben wird. Diese Studie wurde im Rahmen der Vorbereitung auf ein internationales Entwaffnungs-, Demobilisierungs- und Reintegrationsprojekt durchgeführt. Die Drogenkonsummuster zwischen dem Norden und dem Süden Somalias unterscheiden sich deutlich. Die Einwochenprävalenz von Khatkonsum, die individuell konsumierte Menge und der Gebrauch fünf anderer Drogen (Cannabis, Psychopharmaka, Alkohol, Lösungsmittel und Hanfsamen) waren klar höher in Südsomalia. Die Reintegration ehemaliger Kombatanten in Somalia stellt eine Herausforderung dar, weil viele von ihnen Drogenprobleme haben.
In Kapitel 7 wird ein Modell für den Zusammenhang zwischen Khatkonsum und Störungen des Schizophreniespektrums vorgestellt. Dabei sind drei aufeinander folgende Prozesse von zentraler Bedeutung: der frühe Beginn des Konsums, die Steigerung der individuell konsumierten Khatmenge und das Erwerben einer Vulnerabilität für Schizophrenie durch wiederholte khatinduzierte, psychotische Zustände. Die Schizophrenie selbst kann durch fortgesetzten Khatgebrauch ausgelöst werden, wenn dieses Stadium erst erreicht ist.

Fachgebiet (DDC)
150 Psychologie
Schlagwörter
Kathinon, Kathin, Kriegstrauma, drogeninduzierte Psychose, zentrale Stimulanzien, Qat, Miraa, Miraa, Qat, Cathinone, Cathine, drug-induced psychosis
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ISO 690ODENWALD, Michael, 2006. The use of the stimulant khat, war-related trauma and psychosis in Somalia : how changed use patterns of a traditional drug are related to psychiatric problems in a country in the transition from war to peace [Dissertation]. Konstanz: University of Konstanz
BibTex
@phdthesis{Odenwald2006stimu-10991,
  year={2006},
  title={The use of the stimulant khat, war-related trauma and psychosis in Somalia : how changed use patterns of a traditional drug are related to psychiatric problems in a country in the transition from war to peace},
  author={Odenwald, Michael},
  address={Konstanz},
  school={Universität Konstanz}
}
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The prevalence of this condition was highest among the former combatants (5% of the total sample), with about 16%, compared to civilian war survivors (8%) and others without any war experiences (3%). We randomly selected 54 of these cases, assessed their mental health using a structured clinical interview and compared them to healthy matched controls. Our results show that 83% (43) of these cases suffered from a long-lasting psychotic disorder of the schizophrenia spectrum. The rest of them was diagnosed with stroke, traumatic brain injury, dementia and mental retardation. In a following case-control study with the 43 psychotic patients we found that their khat use at the time of psychosis onset was significantly higher than the consumption of the matched controls at the same age. Excessive khat use preceded the onset of the disorder in 78% of the psychotic cases in comparison to 4% at the same age among the controls. Additionally, psychotic patients had started to use khat four years earlier in their lives as the healthy controls, on mean at the age of 17. Based on these results we concluded that early onset and excessive use of khat might be risk factors for the development of psychotic disorders of the schizophrenia spectrum.&lt;br /&gt;In Chapter 4, a case study of one patient with a long-lasting psychotic disorder and a comorbid khat abuse is presented. His symptoms worsened while he, in parallel, increased his khat intake; in the course of deterioration of paranoid delusions he finally committed a murder and was imprisoned. This case probably illustrates the most neglected side of the psychiatric problems related to khat: this is not the striking picture of a khat-induced psychosis but the effect of khat chewing on pre-existing disorders. This case study also provides insight into the local juridical practice: he was treated as a normal prisoner as if there was no psychiatric condition involved.&lt;br /&gt;In Chapter 5, a study is reported, which aimed at the development of a reliable and valid psycho-diagnostic instrument to assess Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Somali language and which can be applied by trained, local interviewers. A Somali version of the Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (Foa, 1995) was developed. It showed good reliability and validity in a sample of 135 randomly chosen ex-combatants. We found that ex-combatants with PTSD reported a longer average duration of khat sessions in the previous week. They also exhibited more frequently productive psychotic symptoms. Important in this context, we confirmed our previous hypothesis that attempts to self-medicate posttraumatic symptoms promote khat use and might   in this way - contribute to the development of khat-induced psychotic symptoms.&lt;br /&gt;The previously reported work served as preparatory study for a large epidemiological assessment of more than 8.000 active and former combatants, as described in Chapter 6. This study was conducted in the context of a preparatory project for an international disarmament, demobilization and reintegration program. Drug use patterns markedly differed between northern and southern Somalia: the one-week prevalence as well as the amount of khat use and the estimated use of five other drugs (hashish, psychoactive tablets, alcohol, solvents and hemp seeds) were clearly higher in southern Somalia. This study illustrates that the reintegration of former combatants will be a challenge, as a large number of participants will have drug-related problems.&lt;br /&gt;In Chapter 7, a model for the assumed relationship between khat use and schizophrenia spectrum disorders is presented. Central in this model are three consecutive processes: the early onset in life, the increase of khat consumption and the development of acquired vulnerability to schizophrenia through multiple khat-induced psychotic states. Schizophrenia as such can be triggered through continuous khat use after this stage has been reached.</dcterms:abstract>
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